Before reviewing the relevant literature, it is necessary to clarify the concepts of reading and reading loss, as they are used in this study.

Reading is defined as a complex cognitive process through which readers decode meaning from written symbols, culminating in comprehension. As a receptive language skill, reading supports language acquisition and enables readers to engage critically with written texts (Arcos 2018; Darmawan 2016).

Reading loss refers to the decline of reading knowledge or skills resulting from prolonged interruptions in schooling. In this study, reading loss denotes disruptions in the development of reading skills associated with extended absence from formal schooling. Reading loss may contribute to learning loss. Learning loss may be understood as knowledge that is forgotten or the content that learners should have acquired under uninterrupted instructional conditions (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF] 2021). It also reflects the gap between what learners currently know and what they could have achieved had learning not been disrupted (Angrist et al. 2021).

The COVID-19 disruptions had devastating effects on the teaching and learning of English as a second or additional language, resulting in substantial learning losses across the language skills. Jakubowski, Gajderowicz and Patrinos’s (2023) study reported an average international reading decline of approximately 33% of the standard deviation, equivalent to more than a year of schooling, with greater declines recorded for schools that closed for longer periods (Demie et al. 2022). In the United Kingdom (UK), Relyea et al.’s (2022) study revealed a discernible decline in reading skills among students who took English as an Additional Language. Reading gains for the 2020/2021 school year declined by 0.54, 0.27, and 0.28 standard deviations for Grades 3, 4, and 5. Data from over one million learners in the United States also revealed negative reading trajectories (Renaissance Learning 2021). Interestingly, these studies reported that reading loss was more severe among learners from rural and low-income backgrounds, highlighting the need for targeted interventions in these areas.

Situating South Africa’s experience within this global context reveals similar dire commonalities. Makena and Mpiti (2022) found that the learners’ English FAL proficiency declined significantly as collaborative and communicative learning opportunities diminished as a result of social distancing and school closures. Systemic tests in the Western Cape revealed severe learning losses for Grades 3 and 6, particularly in vocabulary, reading comprehension, and writing. The relatively stable performance for Grade 9 was attributed to the exclusion of writing assessments at that level (Van der Berg et al. 2022). Further analysis by Wills and Van der Berg (2024) estimated that South African learners lost between 38% and 118% of a year’s learning between 2020 and 2021, intensifying existing educational inequalities. The extent of these losses becomes even more apparent when compared with international benchmarks. South Africa’s Progress in International Reading Literacy Studies (PIRLS) score declined from 320 in 2016 to 288 in 2021, representing a 31.4-point drop, which highlights the deepening educational challenges (Mullis et al. 2023).

The long-term implications of these learning losses are profound. Without effective mitigation, long-term educational consequences may persist, particularly for learners who have already fallen behind and continue to do so as they progress through the school system (Molato-Gayares et al. 2021; Van der Berg et al. 2022). The aftermath of the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan provides a compelling illustration of the enduring impact of such disruptions. Students who missed 3 months of schooling remained approximately 1.5 years behind their unaffected peers 4 years later (Andrabi, Daniels & Das 2021). These findings highlight that learning loss is not self-correcting. It demands deliberate, sustained intervention.

Despite the clear need, limited research has explored practical, classroom-based strategies that English FAL teachers in rural areas can use to address COVID-19-induced reading losses. Given the unequal access to remote learning during the pandemic, this gap is particularly critical for rural learners. Statistics South Africa (2022) indicate that only 6% of South African youth aged 5–24 participated in remote learning during this period. Racial disparities were also evident: while 36% of Indian, Asian and White youth accessed remote learning, only 9% of Black South African youth had the same opportunity. These disparities underscore the urgency for targeted support in under-resourced rural schools.

Although the DBE revised annual teaching plans (ATPs) to recover lost teaching time, such interventions require classroom-based reinforcement. Therefore, this study argues that FVR is a powerful, contextually adaptable tool for mitigating COVID-19-induced reading loss in rural English FAL Grade 10 classrooms. Free voluntary reading goes beyond just complementing the ATPs to cultivating sustained literacy development.

Stephen Krashen first introduced FVR in The Power of Reading (1993), with a second edition published in 2004. Also referred to as pleasure reading, recreational reading, or self-selected reading, FVR involves reading voluntarily rather than under obligation. It is a voluntary activity undertaken for enjoyment, without external pressure or evaluation. In FVR, readers are not required to complete book reports, answer comprehension questions, or look up unfamiliar vocabulary. Instead, they are encouraged to stop reading material they do not enjoy and select something more appealing (Krashen 2004).

Free voluntary reading is grounded in Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, which posits that language acquisition occurs not through direct instruction, memorisation, or grammar drills, but through exposure to comprehensible input. From this perspective, both first and second language acquisition, including vocabulary development, are primarily driven by listening to and reading engaging, comprehensible content (Krashen 2021; Krashen, Lee & Lao 2018). When reading materials are overly complex, learners are less likely to engage with or benefit from them. As such, FVR is considered a highly effective method for promoting language and literacy development, with documented benefits in vocabulary growth, reading comprehension, and writing proficiency. Central to this approach is the principle that students become better readers by reading extensively (Krashen 2006). Therefore, addressing challenges in second language learning requires providing learners with access to a wide variety of interesting, level-appropriate reading materials and ensuring dedicated time for reading (Krashen 2003).

Within this framework, the present study exposed learners to rich and engaging texts to foster consistent reading habits, characterised by regular independent reading, purposeful engagement with texts, and reading for meaning and enjoyment. These habits are expected to enhance their reading abilities and, in turn, support their development as confident speakers and proficient writers.

Sustained Silent Reading is one method that operationalises FVR, by allocating 10 min –15 min of uninterrupted, independent reading each day. In this study, a wide range of reading materials was provided to enable learners to select reading materials they could read independently. During this time, learners are free to choose and read any material they find interesting, without the pressure of assessments, book reports, or mandatory completion. Teachers are also encouraged to read alongside their learners to model positive reading behaviours, thereby portraying reading as a valued and meaningful activity rather than merely an instructional requirement (Krashen 2006). Unlike Extensive Reading, which typically requires summaries or reports, SSR promotes reading enjoyment and autonomy without follow-up tasks (Krashen 2003).

Within the context of this study, the primary aim of SSR was to foster a genuine interest in reading, particularly among reluctant readers, and to encourage them to read more frequently, even beyond the classroom setting (Krashen 1997). By increasing learners’ motivation to read, SSR creates the foundational conditions necessary for language acquisition to occur.

Although the value and effectiveness of FVR have occasionally been questioned, empirical evidence affirms the effectiveness of FVR in second language acquisition, particularly when engaging with fiction and longer connected texts, which have been found to be more beneficial than other reading forms (Jerrim & Moss 2019; Torppa et al. 2020). For example, McQuillan’s (2019) comparison of the efficiency of direct instruction and free reading revealed that FVR was six times more effective than direct instruction in teaching academic vocabulary. However, the absence of information regarding participants’ reading proficiency limits the generalisability of these findings, as it remains unclear whether the reported effects apply equally to proficient and struggling readers. More broadly, FVR has been associated with gains in grammatical development, reading comprehension, and writing proficiency, suggesting its potential contribution to overall language development (Abualzain 2017; Bautista & Maruland 2018; Efendi & Deyani 2022).

These findings reinforce the argument that FVR is an invaluable, evidence-based pedagogical tool that can be employed to mitigate the COVID-19-induced reading loss in rural English FAL classrooms. Beyond reading loss mitigation, FVR holds potential to instil a reading culture that fosters autonomy and lifelong learning, skills essential across all subjects. Thus, FVR is more than just a compensatory intervention; it can be a foundation for rebuilding and strengthening post-pandemic literacy foundations.

This study is grounded in Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, which posits that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level (i+1). Progress in language acquisition involves improving from the current level (i) to the next, slightly more advanced stage (+1) (Krashen 1982). Although it is often criticised for limited empirical precision, it remains influential in explaining how sustained exposure to comprehensible input supports language development. Krashen (1985) contends that optimal input must be comprehensible, slightly challenging, and so interesting that learners become absorbed in the act of reading rather than the mechanics of decoding a second language. In this regard, comprehension is not only enhanced by the learner’s linguistic knowledge but also by extra-linguistic knowledge, such as general world knowledge and context cues.

Krashen’s argument that reading is a key medium for enhancing vocabulary acquisition, spelling accuracy, reading fluency, syntactic development, and writing proficiency aligns with the pedagogical aims of this study (Krashen & Bland 2014). In this vein, it is reasonable to assume that Grade 10 English FAL learners already possess some foundational linguistic competence and background knowledge necessary for engaging with slightly challenging texts.

Therefore, the Input Hypothesis provides a theoretical framework for understanding how exposure to engaging, slightly challenging texts can facilitate vocabulary growth and language acquisition. As learners process increasingly complex input, their reading proficiency is expected to improve, thereby mitigating COVID-19-induced reading loss. Moreover, by developing sustained reading habits, learners engage in a continuous, unconscious process of language acquisition that occurs naturally without explicit instruction.

The study adopted a qualitative approach, guided by the constructivist paradigm and framed within the Participatory Action Learning and Action Research (PALAR) design. The constructivist paradigm enabled both the researchers and co-researchers to engage in a collaborative journey of empowerment through knowledge construction, aimed at understanding and improving the learning experiences of the learners involved in the study (Kamal 2019). Positioning the study within a qualitative framework supported a participatory and context-sensitive inquiry conducted in the participants’ natural environment (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2018).

Participatory Action Learning and Action Research was employed as the research design to involve participants actively in identifying challenges and co-developing practical solutions. In keeping with the principles of PALAR, participants were treated as equal partners in the research process and therefore referred to as co-researchers (Kearney, Zuber-Skerrit & Wood 2013). The implementation of PALAR in this study followed a modified version of its traditional stages, aligned with the specific context and research goals, and was conducted over a 4-month period.

Several preparatory meetings with the two participating teachers, held prior to the initial session with all co-researchers (teachers, learners, and researchers), highlighted the impact of COVID-19 on reading. Pre-intervention semi-structured interviews with participating teachers confirmed a substantial decline in reading proficiency among Grade 10 English FAL learners, thereby justifying the rationale for the targeted intervention. The decline is reported in the findings section of the study.

Purposive sampling was used to select two Grade 10 English FAL teachers and ten Grade 10 English FAL learners from four Grade 10 classrooms in one rural high school. The two teachers were female, aged 35–46 years, with more than three years of teaching experience, and the ten learners were aged 16–17 years; all of whom are referred to using pseudonyms in the form of personal names. These participants provided rich data because they were directly involved in the FVR sessions implemented in their school. Since participation in this study was voluntary, the researchers selected the first 10 learners who showed interest in the study. As revealed by the findings, almost half of these learners were struggling readers. Although this small sample size limits the generalisability of the findings, the primary aim was to elicit the co-researchers’ lived experiences and generate rich, contextually grounded insights into their engagement with FVR.

Data were generated through the triangulation of semi-structured interviews with teachers, focus group discussions with learners, and observations. Additional data were collected during the various stages of the PALAR process, including the start-up, midway, and concluding workshops.

Semi-structured interviews captured the lived experiences of co-researchers, enabling the interpretation of the phenomena under study (Brinkmann & Kvale 2015). Their flexible format allowed for the emergence of rich, unexpected insights. These semi-structured interviews with the teachers were conducted before and after the intervention.

Focus group discussions provided extensive data due to their interactive nature (Hennink 2014). The dialogic format encouraged debate and discussion among participants, yielding insights not easily accessible through individual interviews. The focus group discussions with learners were conducted after the implementation was completed.

Observations served to complement interview and focus group data. The participatory nature of PALAR allowed researchers to be immersed in the implementation of FVR, enabling them to collect first-hand, context-rich data (Wellington 2015). These observations were made throughout the project, for example during the SSR sessions, workshops, and focus group discussions.

The triangulation of these data generation tools strengthened the credibility of the study by enabling cross-validation of the findings.

Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2022) six-phases of reflexive thematic analysis. Familiarisation began during data generation, with repeated readings and manual transcription enabling early engagement. Coding involved identifying data segments aligned with the study objectives and assigning concise, analytic labels that were refined recursively. To streamline organisation, the coded data were saved as a web document, allowing automatic numbering and linking of codes to corresponding quotes. Initial themes were developed by clustering related codes, which were organised in tables to support clarity. These themes were then reviewed, refined, and clearly named to ensure coherence and relevance to the research questions. Finally, the findings were written up through a cohesive narrative, supported by participants’ verbatim responses, interpretive commentary, and observational data, to enhance depth and credibility.

The data analysis and the write-up of the final report adhered to the established criteria for trustworthiness. The researchers enhanced confirmability through sustained self-reflection throughout the study, ensuring that the results were grounded in the data rather than the researchers’ biases. Therefore, member-checking was conducted by sharing emerging themes with co-researchers for validation and feedback, thereby ensuring the credibility of the findings. Additionally, prolonged engagement with the participants, in line with the principles of PALAR, enhanced the credibility of the findings. Although the small sample size limits the generalisability of the findings, the detailed information provided in this study enables readers to assess the transferability of the findings to similar contexts.

Ethical clearance for this study was granted by the General/Human Research Ethics Committee (University of the Free State) on 24 October 2023 (ethical clearance number: UFS-HSD2023/1391). Additional permission was obtained from the Free State Department of Education and the principal of the participating school. Issues related to anonymity, voluntary participation, withdrawal without consequences, written consent and assent forms were strictly adhered to.

Although no baseline assessments were conducted because of the qualitative design of the study, evidence drawn from the co-researchers’ lived experiences indicated that the learners’ reading skills were adversely affected thy the COVID-19-induced school closures and rotational timetables. The excerpts below illustrate the teachers’ and learners’ perspectives regarding the perceived decline in reading proficiency during this period:

Corroborating their teachers, the learners’ responses below also revealed awareness of the negative impact on their reading skills:

The data suggest not only evidence of reading loss but also a limited reading culture among learners. A stronger home-based reading culture could have mitigated some of the negative effects of schooling disruptions, particularly where learners had access to appropriate reading materials. This insight underscored the need for targeted reading interventions and further strengthened the rationale for the present study.

The aim of the FVR approach is for learners to derive pleasure in what they are reading. Although it may take time for learners to find books that are genuinely interesting, the ultimate goal is for reading to become an intrinsically pleasurable experience. The following are excerpts from the learners’ focus group discussions:

The responses above illustrate the learners’ increasing pleasure in reading. When learners derive greater pleasure from reading, they become motivated to read frequently, a pattern that is further explored in the next theme on reading habits. The observational data also revealed that learners were genuinely immersed in the reading process. The strong rapport established through close collaboration with the co-researchers facilitated open communication and strengthened the custodianship of the programme. Although SSR sessions were scheduled at 14:30, the co-researchers often alerted the researchers if there were events at school that would allow the reading sessions to begin earlier. On such occasions, sessions commenced at 13:00, an hour and 45 min before the end of the school day, demonstrating the learners’ sustained interest and enjoyment of the programme. Although close collaboration with the co-researchers could potentially elicit socially desirable responses, their voluntary requests for additional reading when the opportunities arose suggest genuine interest and an emerging pleasure in reading.

As indicated in the previous theme, learners who derive pleasure from reading often become motivated to read more. Over time, this increased engagement inculcates a sustained reading culture, which is the central aim of FVR. This pattern is reflected in the following quotes from the focus group discussions:

Corroborating the learners’ responses, quoted below are the teachers’ reflections from the semi-structured interviews:

The learners’ quotes above illustrate a transition from having limited reading habits to developing regular reading habits. They also reveal that learners themselves recognised a positive change in their reading behaviours. Interestingly, the teachers’ observations corroborated this development, noting the emergence of an increasing reading culture among the learners. One researcher even observed a participating learner reading on the sidewalk after school, an informal, yet compelling, indication of her growing interest in reading. Such evidence suggests that the FVR implementation was making a positive impact, contributing to efforts to mitigate the COVID-19-induced reading loss.

Reading in the presence of peers can be a daunting task for learners with low confidence, particularly when they feel that their reading skills are not good enough for reading aloud in class. However, the data analysis revealed that participation in the FVR programme contributed to increased reading confidence among the learners. Evidence of this growing confidence is captured in their responses below from the focus group discussions:

Notably, the teachers’ responses from one-on-one semi-structured interviews resonate with those of the learners:

The reflections above demonstrate that learners have developed greater confidence in their reading. Interestingly, the teachers’ observations from semi-structured interviews corroborate the learners’ accounts. As Mrs Ngobese’s observation succinctly noted, ‘I think it has made them to be confident to read, even to read aloud in front of other learners.’

The primary objective of this study was to implement the FVR approach to mitigate COVID-19-induced reading loss in rural English FAL Grade 10 classrooms. Within this context, the data revealed patterns of enhanced reading competencies commonly associated with SSR. These competencies include reading fluency (appropriate pacing and pausing), reading comprehension, reading stamina, and confidence in oral reading. The learners’ reflections below acknowledge these gains:

These learner accounts suggest growth across several dimensions of reading. Ayanda’s reflection indicates developing fluency and prosodic awareness, particularly the ability to regulate pauses and pacing during reading. Katleho’s response highlights improved comprehension and sustained engagement with reading, while Thato’s experience suggests the development of reading stamina and deeper meaning-making when engaging with longer texts. Although these insights reflect learners’ self-reported experiences rather than measured performance outcomes, they provide valuable evidence of how learners perceived the influence of the FVR programme on their reading practices.

Findings from the semi-structured interviews with teachers corroborate the learners’ perspectives:

The teachers’ observations reinforce the patterns reported by learners, particularly regarding enhanced comprehension, increased willingness to read aloud, and greater confidence when engaging with texts. Since the study adopted a qualitative design, no baseline or post-intervention quantitative assessments were conducted to measure changes in reading performance. However, the convergence of perspectives from two independently generated data sources strengthens the credibility of the findings through triangulation, as both learners and teachers describe similar improvements in reading behaviour and engagement. This points to the successful implementation of the FVR approach.

A hallmark of skilled writers is the ability to evoke vivid, sensory images in readers, a skill that relies on strong reading comprehension. The learners’ verbatim quotes reveal that sustained exposure to comprehensible and compelling texts through the FVR programme has enhanced their capacity to visualise and imagine as they read:

The learners’ reflections above indicate their growing awareness of their improving reading skills. They recognise the significance of developing imaginative abilities, noting that visualising events and scenarios while reading deepens their engagement with the text, a foundational skill for effective reading.