According to Mhlongo (2019), the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Department of Education’s Reading Policy Guidelines of 2006 revealed that Grade 6 Intermediate Phase learners had low reading scores across all academic areas, including languages. These findings are associated with the unfavourable learning conditions and poor access to quality education. The audit of South African school libraries revealed that there is a shortage of isiZulu reading books stocked by libraries (Mhlongo 2019).

Pretorius and Machet (2004) stress that learners in well-resourced schools have the advantage of attaining a high level of reading skills as opposed to learners from rural underprivileged schools. The scarcity of fundamental learning resources has a devastating outcome for learners’ academic performance. A study carried out by Ramdan (2015) on factors jeopardising teachers’ ability to teach reading in primary schools discovered that the main challenges encountered by teachers teaching in rural economically disadvantaged schools are associated with the unavailability of learning resources such as reading material. However, it is worth noting that the problem of the unavailability of learning resources may not be limited only to KZN province but to the entire country.

When less privileged schools are provided with sufficient learning equipment such as storybooks, and teachers and learners are motivated, they produce good results (Ramdan 2015). Many rural schools are too poor to buy printed resources such as storybooks on their own and require financial assistance. It is essential that rural schools must be provided with functioning libraries to improve the quality of education, in turn offers learners the opportunity to produce sound grade-level language literacy results.

Pedagogical practices change when learners move from the Foundation Phase (Grades R–3) to the Intermediate Phase. At this level, different content subjects are taught using a variety of learning materials. The instruction in the Intermediate Phase is based solely on the whole class focusing on a different range of themes in the subject; hence, learning resource materials such as textbooks play a crucial role in ensuring the effectiveness of teaching and learning (Ntshangase & Tshuma 2023).

In the context of reading comprehension in the Intermediate Phase, it is essential for learners to have reading accuracy skills, oral reading fluency, and the ability to read for meaning and enjoyment (Van der Walt 2021). Learners must be taught in the early reading grades to avoid persistent reading challenges in the upper grades. Learners must also have the ability to read the text for meaning using different reading strategies, describing their feelings based on the text, discussing the text, interpreting visual texts, comprehending, and responding suitably to the text (Naidoo et al. 2014).

Pretorius and Stoffelsma (2021) argue that the shift to the Intermediate Phase extends beyond the perimeters of a language switch, as learners transition from having only one teacher in the classroom to having multiple teachers teaching different subjects. Learners are exposed to a range of academic texts as they are expected to begin reading to learn rather than learning to read (Pretorius & Stoffelsma 2021). This transition justifies the need to also ensure the credibility and quality of reading materials, reading pedagogy strategies in the Intermediate Phase classroom and that teachers are equipped with effective pedagogical content knowledge to prepare learners for a smooth transition while ensuring inclusive reading.

According to Berkeley and Larsen (2018), inclusive reading is the capacity to teach reading skills in a classroom with both at-risk readers and proficient readers by utilising inclusive pedagogical instruction that meets the needs of all learners. According to the Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001), the idea of an inclusive education involves teaching learners who have been diagnosed with learning difficulties in the same classroom as students who do not have such issues.

Diversity and inclusion are promoted in university education programmes. Recently graduated teachers have found it difficult to support varied learning in the classroom without proper training for inclusive learning (including inclusive reading) (Subban & Mahlo 2017). The DBE offers a ‘framework for standardisation of the procedures to identify, assess, and provide programmes for all learners who require additional support’ in the Screening, Identification, Assessment, and Help Policy (SIAS) (DBE 2014:37).

Guidelines for identifying and screening students who need extra help because of learning disabilities are provided under the SIAS policy (DBE 2014). The South African education system has made an effort to create a policy that encourages the inclusion of these learners in the classroom, but it is still unclear how teachers should put inclusive policies into effect. Moreover, Ntshangase (2023) maintains that the current education policies do not include precise instructions on how inclusive reading should be taught in mainstream schools, and neither do reading initiatives like the Early Grade Reading Assignment and the National Ready Strategy. In addition, reading teachers underestimate the importance of reading motivation in the inclusive reading classroom which perpetuates reading challenges, particularly for at-risk readers. This study advocates that the notion of inclusive reading should be adopted by curriculum designers, policymakers, and reading materials creators to design suitable reading materials that contain reading content and activities that accommodates both at-risk readers and those with reading proficiency. Furthermore, the inclusive reading material advocated by this study should contain encouraging, rich content appealing to learners’ lives.

To encourage children to read, print experiences are necessary where learners are exposed to as many unfamiliar words as possible (Daries & Probert 2020). Teachers should encourage their learners to read independently and with enthusiasm (Dakhi & Damanik 2018; Nevo & Vaknin-Nusbaum 2020; Zulu & Ndebele 2020). However, the key question remains: How can this be accomplished? Daniel Willingham (2017) discusses a strategy known as rewarding children for reading. Although rewarding a learner will create the desired behaviour in the short term, the long-term effect is to instil in them that their academic participation will always be rewarded. This means that if they were never rewarded in the first place, they would be less likely to participate well in the absence of a reward (Willingham 2017).

Willingham (2017) offers two main reading motivational strategies: maximising the value of reading and making the choice to do so easily. If there are enough engaging reading materials available to them, such as texts that relate to their everyday life or foster friendships, children will frequently take reading seriously (Rideout 2015). Comic books, books with specific song lyrics or about their favourite sports are a few examples of possible texts. These resources might be innately inspiring to a child even though they are not great literature. The amount of time learners spend reading depends greatly on their willingness to read as well as whether they are willing to go above and beyond what is expected of them (Willingham 2017). According to Rideout (2015), while 30% of teenagers said they enjoyed reading, they also said they were more interested in other activities such as watching videos and playing games. To make the most of reading opportunities, it is always crucial to have printed material in the classroom. To boost learners’ chances of selecting a text of interest to them to read, parents can, for instance, stock their homes and other areas with a variety of reading materials (Castle, Rastle & Nation 2018). While motivation is a cornerstone of reading development, it must be noted that learners with reading difficulties may require extensive engagement to improve their reading cognitive abilities.

In the majority of South African schools, learners use their home language in the Foundation Phase, and the language of instruction changes when transitioning from the Foundation Phase to the Intermediate Phase. Despite the constitutional obligation mandating everyone to learn and access quality education in their language of choice, many learners still learn in a language which is not their home language and reading problems tend to be masked as language proficiency issues (Land 2015). An associated assumption is that when learners have difficulty using reading as a tool for learning, their comprehension problems are understood to be a product of limited language proficiency rather than inadequate reading skills. Such reading difficulties are often misdiagnosed as language proficiency difficulties.

While there is a connection between language proficiency and ability to read, it should be noted that they are not synonymous. As Pretorius and Machet (2004:47) stress, poor literacy achievement cannot only be associated with second language instruction, because teachers and learners also experience challenges with African languages literacy. This has been confirmed with the PIRLS (2022/2023) findings regarding poor achievement in African languages reading. Many Intermediate Phase learners possess the ability to speak fluently in their home language but often struggle to read adequately.

This study advocates that more literacy development opportunities must be made available in African languages. Learners develop competence in the second language by mastering their home language (Mezrigui 2011:243; Ntshangase 2023).

The phases of word learning theory was propounded by Ehri and McCormick (2008). The theory describes five phases a learner has to go through to achieve fluency, including other aspects that contribute to the development of reading skills. These phases are pre-alphabetic (Preschool), partial-alphabetic (Kindergarten), full-alphabetic (Grade 1) and consolidated-alphabetic (Grade 2), and the automatic-alphabetic phase (beyond Grade 2). Each of these phases (see Figure 1) consists of its own characteristics which are used to develop comprehensive reading and provide an effective guide to reading.

The concept ‘learning theory’ maintains that reading instruction should encourage learners to practise reading on a daily basis to enhance their knowledge of the alphabet as well as sight and high-frequency words.

Oral reading fluency assessments should be conducted regularly through observing learners and providing the necessary support that will help them to move from one phase to another (Ehri & McCormick 2008; Pikulski & Chard 2005). Having knowledgeable teachers who will employ the prerequisite reading pedagogical strategy remains key in building a strong foundation of literacy skills. Therefore, it is worth stating that at-risk readers need knowledgeable teachers who will provide the support that will help them succeed in reading. In addition, Ehri and McCormick (2008) claim that a classroom environment with printed word reading materials is important in enhancing learners’ vocabulary skills (Aldhanhani & Abu-Ayyash 2020).

Ehri and McCormick (2008) further suggest the decoding strategy (also known as the word-attack strategy), which enables at-risk readers to be exposed to unfamiliar words. The decoding strategy identifies sounds of individual letters by means of holding them in memory and then blending them into pronunciations which are recognised as real words. The analogy reading strategy entails recognising how the spelling of a particular word is similar to a word that is already familiar. Analogising enables at-risk readers in the inclusive reading classroom to access the familiar word in memory and thereafter adjust their pronunciation in order to accommodate the new word. A sight-reading strategy uses memory to read words that have been attended to or read before. Ehri and McCormick explain that the sight of the word automatically activates its pronunciation, spelling, and meaning in memory. In other words, when readers have mastered sight words, it becomes less complex for them to recognise pronunciation without having to try figuring out the word.

The concept ‘learning theory’ is relevant to this study, since it deals with comprehensive reading strategies and further discusses critical phases a learner has to go through to develop reading fluency. Teachers can use the phases of word learning theory to develop adequate reading materials that feature learning of the alphabet as well as sight and high-frequency words. This theory also provides insights into reading instruction that is suitable for each learner’s level of reading, such as modelled reading strategy and the repeated-reading strategy, et cetera. This benefits this study in exploring various reading pedagogical strategies that can work effectively for at-risk readers and for teachers teaching isiZulu reading comprehension while cooperating with effective reading materials. The present study is based on the premise that printed word reading material in the classroom is pivotal in improving learners’ vocabulary knowledge, which is further detailed under word learning theory. Therefore, framing this study in the word reading theory can help the researcher to explain the data from this study.

This research is located within the interpretive paradigm. This is because the interpretive paradigm creates meaning that focuses on understanding people’s experiences (Alharahsheh & Pius 2020). Through the interpretive paradigm, the study captured the experiences of teachers on the lack of isiZulu reading materials at the Intermediate Phase level. This study employed a qualitative research approach to better develop an in-depth understanding of reading material for isiZulu Intermediate Phase inclusive reading comprehension while also underpinning the challenges posed by lack of adequate reading material in teaching reading. Qualitative research is regarded as a form of socially responsive action that deals with people’s interpretation of their experiences to better understand individuals’ social reality and gain extensive knowledge of the surrounding circumstances (Flick 2018). Similarly, Crabtree and Miller’s (2022) view of qualitative research is that of a systematic and subjective approach that addresses daily life experiences and assigns them appropriate meaning which in most cases is measured quantitatively. In other words, qualitative researchers focus on the interpretations, meanings, codes, processes, and relationships of social life. A non-purposive sampling method, a type of convenience sampling, was used to select 10 Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers in the uMkhanyakude district across different primary schools. uMkhanyakude is situated in the Northern part of the KZN province where approximately 80% of the population speaks isiZulu as their mother tongue (Statistics South Africa [STATS SA] 2022:23]. While there are numerous studies investigating reading materials in English used as medium of instruction in many South African schools, there is a paucity of studies investigating isiZulu reading materials, particularly at the Intermediate Phase level (Brevik 2019; Elston, Tiba & Condy 2022). Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers were purposively selected because:

Data from this study were collected through semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. Classroom observations were conducted with each selected isiZulu subject teacher who was later interviewed. Observations was carried out to observe availability of isiZulu reading materials in the classroom during isiZulu reading comprehension lessons, whereas semi-structured interviews were conducted to understand teachers’ perception and experience on the shortage of isiZulu reading material. The researcher purposively selected a sample of 10 Intermediate Phase isiZulu subject teachers to participate in both semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. The researcher employed thematic analysis to analyse interviews and observation transcripts. The researcher will examine the data collected closely and analyse it using the coding method; in other words, through ‘grouping data and then assigning them into brother categories of related meanings and themes’ (Du Plooy-Cilliers, Davis & Bezuidenhout 2014:234). The researcher found it crucial to use triangulation to enhance the trustworthiness and comprehensiveness of data further and to counterbalance the limitation of each individual research method employed by the study. The units of analysis in this study are the reading materials available for teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu inclusive reading comprehension.

The researcher needed to understand respondents’ gender, age, and experience regarding reading isiZulu materials in the Intermediate Phase primary schools of uMkhanyakude district to determine whether these factors have any impact on learners’ cognitive reading performance. Table 1 illustrates that all the study participants were qualified to teach, and they possess sufficient teaching experience for the isiZulu subject.

Learning resources in schools are the driving force towards successful learning and teaching processes. This indicates that the shortage of learning resources may have a greater impact in sustaining poor-quality education, particularly in the rural school context. Many rural schools face a serious shortage of learning resources compared to their wealthier urban counterparts. The consequence of having poor learning resources is a high rate of learner drop-out. This is a clear indication that the South African education system is still unequal, despite the provisions of the South African Constitution (1996) that stipulates that everyone must have access to a good quality of education. However, rural schools remain the most marginalised and neglected institutions of learning when it comes to access to quality education. Table 2 presents observations on teaching and learning resources.

All of the teachers that were observed used the DoE isiZulu textbook titled Masihambisane. Learners had to sit in groups to share one textbook, because copies were not available for every individual learner. T1 shared that they did not have reading material on the walls because the learners destroyed them every time. Such conduct indicates a lack of discipline among learners. None of the schools had libraries or any technological reading equipment to help learners read, such as computer-based reading materials and reading voice recorders. It is worth mentioning that the evidence from this study in terms of school reading material is also supported by the National Reading Panel (2008), which alludes to insufficient reading materials as a barrier towards reading development.

Data accrued from the teacher observations indicate that rural schools have an extreme shortage of reading materials that perpetuates reading problems. The present study suggests that rural schools are neglected when it comes to the distribution of learning materials. Nevertheless, the role of the KZN DoE to deliver adequate learning resources to schools and alleviate poor reading in African languages remains a matter of concern. Ninety per cent (n = 9) of the classes had reading charts displayed on the wall for reading practice, whereas 10% (n = 1) did not have any form of printed work in the classroom. The following section aims to understand the availability of reading materials available in classrooms.

It is important to note that the researcher only collected data from uMkhanyakude district; as a result, the findings of this study cannot be generalised. This study observed that there is still a gap in the transition stage of reading comprehension between the Foundation Phase and the Intermediate Phase. Teachers lack understanding of what the difference is and what is expected of them to deliver in these two phases when it comes to reading development. It would be appropriate to conduct a study that investigates learner reading development during the transition from the Foundation Phase to the Intermediate Phase and teachers’ understanding of what is expected of them.