In 1966, when Botswana declared independence, it was considered to have one of the lowest literacy rates in the world (Youngman 2002). Education became a major development priority. The government chose to retain British English as the official language of the country, whilst Setswana, the language spoken by eight Tswana groups, became the national language. Setswana was accepted as the medium of instruction for the first two to three years of primary school; thereafter, English is supposed to be the medium of instruction.

Educational development in Botswana can be attributed to two major educational policies: the 1977 National Commission on Education Report and the 1994 Revised National Commission on Education Report. The 1977 report, ‘Education for Kagisano’, was the brainchild of the first president, Sir Seretse Khama. Kagisano was a philosophy of education based on four pillars:

1. democracy
2. development
3. self-reliance and unity
4. social harmony.

The policy also focused on increasing access to education. A 9-year basic education system was the goal, with Setswana as the medium of instruction for the first two to three years and thereafter English was supposed to be the medium of instruction.

In 1994 a Revised National Policy of Education (RNPE) was issued. A 10-year basic education programme became the goal. In that programme, students would develop critical thinking and problem-solving capabilities whilst also developing their awareness of literacy. This included developing speaking and writing proficiencies in English, Setswana and a third language. These and other goals were to be pursued whilst also acquiring knowledge and appreciation for the different languages, traditions, songs, ceremonies, customs and social norms in Botswana society.

The schools of independent Botswana are government, government-aided, or privately funded institutions; the government’s goal is that all Botswana children should attain the minimum level. Children are expected to learn to read and write in Setswana and English in the first three years of primary school. At the end of seven years of primary education all students sit for Primary School Leaving Examinations (PSLE) in Mathematics, English, Science, Social Studies, Agriculture, Religious and Moral Education (RME) and Setswana. Those who pass can proceed to junior secondary level and, thereafter, to senior secondary school. Junior secondary school is three years (Forms 1–3) and students are assumed to be bilingual in English and Setswana even if their mother tongue was another language. Senior secondary school is two years (Form 4–5).

Botswana has conducted two national surveys of literacy (in 1993 and 2004); yet there is no equivalent term in Setswana for the English word ‘literacy’. This presented Ketsitlile (2009) with a challenge when she interviewed students in Setswana about their literacy practices. To ask the students about literacy Ketsitlile said, ‘O tlhaloganya go nna le kitso kana go itse ele eng?’ [What do you mean by knowing or to know?]. There are words for reading and writing in Setswana, which is important for those conducting interviews in Setswana. To read is ‘go bala’ and to write is ‘go kwala’. The 2003 survey found that 81% of adults over 15 years old could read and write in English and Setswana (Hanemann 2005). This was a significant increase from the 1993 survey, which found 69% of the same population to be literate (Commeyras & Chilisa, 2001).

Most students (99%) make the transition from primary to secondary schooling (Lee, Zuze & Ross 2005). Advancement from junior secondary to senior secondary has increased over time. In 2006, 61% of students went from primary to junior secondary school (Molowisa 2007). These results are tempered by the increasing awareness of and attention paid to a high rate of failure and school dropouts, especially amongst those known as remote area dwellers. Remote area dwellers are socio-economically marginalised people; they lack access to basic services and facilities and live outside recognised villages.

The education gap for remote area dwellers is evident in the results of the second national literacy survey jointly conducted in 2003 by the Department of Non-Formal Education and the Central Statistics Office. The literacy rates for those living in Gaborone, Francistown, Lobatse, Selibe Phikwe, Orapa, Jwaneng and Sowa Town were between 92% and 98%, whilst those living in Kweneng West, Ghanzi, Ngamiland West, Kgalagadi North, Kagalagadi South and Central Boteti had literacy rates below 70%. There are some 64 recognised remote area dweller settlements located in these seven districts: Central, Ghantsi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Northwest and Southern. The remote area dwellers are those who speak Khoesan and other languages such as Wayei, Bambukushu, Herero, amongst others. They are the educationally disenfranchised citizens of Botswana. Efforts to understand the San’s experiences with schooling have been made (Hays 2002; Pridmore 1995). For example, Ketsitlile (2009) conducted research with San students in a junior secondary school. At first they told her that literacy was getting good grades in school, but when they knew her better they talked about literacy as being proficient in anything that conveys an important message. For them this meant storytelling, dancing, games, riddles and knowing the medicinal properties of plants.

Colonial and post-colonial educational systems, curricula, pedagogies, and specifically the teaching of reading in Botswana, were designed for the promotion of functional literacy amongst its citizens. Missionaries such as David Livingstone taught some people to read and write so that they could read the Bible and spread Christianity (Landau 1995; Schapera 1961). With time, Batswana (people of Botswana) wanted an education that went beyond what the missionaries offered, but what they got was an education that met the needs of colonial administrators (Mgadla 2003). After Botswana gained independence from Britain in 1966, the teaching of reading was constructed to develop a workforce that would gain reading and writing skills almost exclusively for the labour market.

In Botswana, what is needed is reading pedagogies to meet the needs of diverse students. We agree with Dewey (1995) that there is a need to teach for democracy, specifically for this review, the teaching of reading as part of a democratic process in primary and secondary schools in Botswana. It is time we do away with the traditional teaching of reading in favour of pedagogies that are suited to the needs and aspirations of the society and age we live in. Hence, it is important for the teaching and learning process to educate the educator too. For example, Cervero & Wilson (1994) note that educational planners should be front runners in representing those disadvantaged in the curriculum development, program planning, teaching and selection of texts. Planners need to use their technical and political astuteness to overcome any form of oppression, cultivate an invaluable culture of resistance and counter hegemonic strategies that will thwart our efforts towards democracy in education, specifically meeting the needs of the students in the teaching of reading in Botswana (Youngman 2000).

Given the differences in literacy attainment between districts, we are compelled to embrace critical pedagogy because it ‘places the experiences of the oppressed at the centre of the teaching learning universe’ (Maruatona 2002:89). Consequently, the teaching of reading in Botswana should be student-centred and accord them a voice. This agrees with the current Communicative Language Approach syllabi in Botswana schools. According to Freire (1972), an emancipatory education is called for in schools to raise the consciousness of individuals to enable them to effectively participate in classroom interactions.

Writing from the notes and from the documents themselves was also part of our analytic process. As proposed by Commeyras and Inyega (2007), writing is a useful method of inquiry and analysis when conducting comprehensive literature reviews. We engaged in a recursive process in which our writing led to rereading or seeking additional information to taking notes to writing anew. This process works well with multiple researchers because we serve as a reliability check on the accuracy and clarity of the information retrieved from the documents.

To assess inferential reading comprehension, students took a 100-item multiple choice test designed by Science Research Associates. The test had been validated in a pilot study. The Batswana students’ results were compared with those of American students because English was the language of instruction in all secondary schools and was to some extent used for instruction in primary school standard 4 – standard 7 [Grade 6 – Grade 9]. There was an expectation that by Form-4 and Form-5 the Batswana students would be performing more like native speakers of English; however, as seen in Table 1, there remained a difference of about 20 points on the mean score between the Batswana and American students across the five levels of schooling.

Hamblett (1977) also tested students’ rate of reading in relation to comprehension. As shown in Table 2, the number of words read per minute in relation to their comprehension was poorest in Form-1 but with each succeeding school year there was improvement in both reading rate and comprehension.

The readability of 70 textbooks and other materials used in the schools was analysed by Hamblett (1977) using Fry’s readability formula and a cloze test. The cloze tests were about 200 words long with every 10th word deleted, excluding numbers and proper names. Only exact words filled in were counted as correct and students were given as much time as they needed to finish. The passages were taken from textbooks on a list approved by the Ministry of Education and other texts frequently used in schools (most published outside Botswana). Student performance was scored as ‘independent’ with 51% correct responses, ‘instructional’ with 38% – 50% correct and ‘frustration’ with 0% – 37% correct. The results showed that few textbooks were at the students’ independent reading level and over half the books were at their frustration level. Hamblett (1977:15) concluded that ‘students’ comprehension levels are low, even for students whose medium of instruction is a second language, and that they lack of familiarity with content registers’. She acknowledged that teachers would have to provide intensive instruction to make up for the fact that students were reading materials that were too advanced given their reading abilities.

Hamblett (1977) compared the reading levels of students with the levels of the textbooks by superimposing the scores on the inferential comprehension placement test on Fry’s graph based on USA grade equivalents. She found that the average reading levels of students in Form-1 (Grade 8) through Form-3 (Grade 10) were at the mid-primary level. The average reading level of Form-4 (Grade 11) and Form-5 (Grade 12) students were at the upper primary level on Fry’s index. The readability of the textbooks was above the upper primary level, which means students were being expected to read materials that were too difficult. This discrepancy is not surprising given that at this time it was typical to find textbooks and curricula being used that were not designed for students for whom English was a second or third language.

Hamblett’s (1977) overall conclusions were that most students have weak reading skills and most of their textbooks are above their reading abilities. In Form-1 to Form-3 (Grade 8 – Grade 10), the difficulty seemed to be one of poor comprehension: the inability to recognise the main ideas and details or even recall enough to draw valid conclusions. In Form-4 and Form-5 (Grade 11 and Grade 12), the difficulties were attributed to weak inferential comprehension and slow reading rates. It was recommended that practice and instruction in reading comprehension be intensified, teachers should be given in-service training on teaching reading, students’ oral reading should be limited to the study of poetry and drama, there should be more use of classroom and school libraries for pleasure reading at all levels, and the set books exam paper at the Junior Certificate level should be re-evaluated.

Another source of information on the status of reading in schools is the Secondary Curriculum Task Force report (Republic of Botswana, 1977). A nine-member panel chaired by Frank Jeffery (Molefi Secondary School) focused on English in the curriculum. The panel concluded that using English as the language of instruction was causing students to need intensive remedial instruction. The report pointed to several shortcomings with regard to reading education in junior and senior secondary schools:

• Too much oral reading by the class as a group with little attention to comprehension (pp. 5–26).
• Student dependence on the teacher for reading and explaining content (pp. 5–27).
• Not enough attention to reading speed to aid comprehension (pp. 5–24).
• Not enough guidance on how to select books for independent reading from class libraries (pp. 5–24).
• School library facilities vary widely from those such as Gaborone Secondary School that are well stocked and cataloged versus Ramotswa Private Secondary School with no library materials (pp. 5–29).

In 1988 the Ministry of Education initiated the Botswana Teacher, Classroom and Achievement study to evaluate efforts to improve teaching practices. A sample was drawn in 1989 that included 350 teachers, 9000 students in 44 junior secondary schools. A team of researchers observed the teacher four times over two years (1989–1990) and the literacy and numeracy skills of students were also assessed four times. Fuller’s (1992) analysis of the 1989 data emphasised the following findings:

1. Teachers spent lots of time talking to pupils. Less than three questions were asked by the average teacher in a ten-minute period.
2. Few instructional tools were used although they were available.
3. The range of cognitive demands on students was limited. In just one-fifth of all class periods teachers assigned some writing.
4. Teachers mostly spoke in English whereas Setswana is the lingua franca of the country.
5. Teachers did vary the organisation of lessons and interaction with pupils to some degree, although lecturing, oral recitation, close-ended questions and written work at the end of lessons were the typical modes of instruction. (n.p.)

Fuller and Snyder (1991) also published some findings related to reading and writing from the Botswana Teacher, Classroom and Achievement pilot study. Observations made of 154 junior secondary school teachers on three occasions for 40 minutes supported the view that pupils spend most of their time listening and little time reading and writing. For example, pupils were observed using a textbook only 11% of the time and reading another book or text 1% of the time. Reading and writing is interrelated, so it also of concern that pupils were observed writing essays 1% of the time. The observers found that more than half of the time was taken up with pupils listening to teachers in lecture mode; that accounted for 69% of the time. These findings indicate that in addition to the challenges of learning in English, the students were not given enough time to even engage in reading and writing to become more proficient.

A study of Form-4 students’ knowledge of vocabulary by Moumakwa (2002) found that teachers only used direct explanation to teach word meanings and sometimes their explanations were partial or incorrect. Molosiwa (2007), who studied the perceptions of secondary school teachers who teach reading in English and Setswana, found that teachers concentrated more on topics that would be on the examinations than on the curricula objectives provided. As one teacher explained to Molosiwa (2007):

teaching according to the syllabus did not work for us positively. From then on we realized that it would be more meaningful to concentrate first on those topics that are examined, and teach everything else only if there was time to do so. (p. 130)

Mokibelo and Magogwe (2008), who studied a junior secondary school in the central district, were left with the impression that teachers had a negative attitude and approach to teaching reading. Teachers’ lesson plans lacked variety with regard to methods of instruction and they were observed mostly lecturing to students.

When Mpotokwane (1986) provided in-service training for half the teachers in her study, they did significantly better than the comparison teachers on the survey of reading knowledge and their students improved on post-test of reading achievement. We have not found any other studies that found that in-service intervention on the teaching of reading assists teachers who understand the teaching of literacy through the lens of national examinations. Teachers seem well aware that their students struggle with reading on examinations (Molosiwa 2007). One teacher interviewed by Molosiwa explained:

over the years candidates have always found difficulties in responding to comprehension questions and this year’s candidates are no exception. The responses clearly indicate lack of reading skills. For instance, candidates still need a lot of practice on responding to questions that deal with drawing inferences and giving reasons or providing for the statements that they make. (Molosiwa 2007:144–145)

Jankie (2001) also heard from teachers of Setswana that the government syllabus was narrowly focused on literary techniques and conventions. One teacher told Jankie (2001) that this interfered with:

calls for the reader to perceive literature texts as something they can transact with, interpret and make meaning of, based on their knowledge of the literary conventions as well as their personal experiences of the world around them or even that of the author. (p. 145)

Arua and Lederer (2003) surveyed first-year University of Botswana students about what they had been taught about reading in secondary school. Many students indicated that they were taught summarising, adjusting their reading rate given their purpose for reading and the difficulty of the text, taking notes about important information and recognising that reading is following signs on the printed page (Ketsitlile & Galegane 2010). Similarly, Chimbganda (2006) found that first-year science students at the University of Botswana were aware of appropriate reading, writing and self-monitoring strategies to use when summarising what they read when they were asked about this on a questionnaire. When Chimbganda analysed summaries written by these students he found that those with a history of academic achievement produced summaries that used paraphrasing to recast ideas, thereby writing more accurately than less academically successful students.

Mmui (2002) surveyed teachers and students at two schools about extensive reading. According to teachers, their students mostly read what was recommended to them by their peers. The teachers found that listening to students talk about what they read was more informative than giving them tests or having them do book reports. The teachers identified numerous advantages for those students who engage in extensive reading, which were all related to improving their English language proficiencies. The responses Mmui got from the students showed that girls more than boys engaged in extensive reading. They liked to read magazines, fiction, newspapers and non-fiction in that order. Reading comics was not popular in that only one of 83 students selected this as a preference. Students said that they sought help with their reading more often from parents or relatives than from their teachers. This was probably because they did most of their extensive reading at home. The responses of teachers and students seem to indicate that extensive reading exists, yet Mmui (2002) found that:

there was very little proof of students having understood what they read as some students when asked to write a paragraph on one of the books they read on their own directly picked paragraphs from the books. A few students however could relate some stories. (p. 22)

Extensive reading was pursued in two teacher action research studies (Maika & Freier 2003; Molelo & Cowieson 2003). Molelo and Cowieson (2003) observed teachers of English for four weeks. The observations revealed that the teaching of reading was mostly about identifying words and pronouncing them in a way that makes comprehension possible. Interviews were conducted with five teachers, 40 students, and the headmaster and public librarians. The students reported liking to read fiction, magazines and comics. They also reported reading as one of the most enjoyable parts of learning because it was an opportunity to learn about other cultures whilst enabling them to improve the English skills needed to pass examinations. The students preferred group or paired reading because they could help one another. We would add that reading with others is social and may be another reason that students preferred it over independent silent reading. The perspective of teachers is quite a contrast to that presented by students:

many of the students were spoken of as being ‘backward readers’. A few were identified who could read but who did not seem to enjoy reading on their own. (Molelo & Cowieson 2003:121)

It seemed to the researchers that school personnel lacked knowledge of students’ interests and preferences. Molelo and Cowieson (2003:125) concluded that there is a ‘deep-seated conservatism’ amongst teachers that leads them to stick with traditional pedagogical practices.

A change in pedagogy to promote extensive reading was undertaken at one school in Takatokwane where English was the third language of students after Sekgalagadi and Setswana (Maika & Freir 2003). Thirty-four Form-1 students participated in a group reading programme. They met in groups of five or six based on their scores on the Primary School Leaving Examination. One student was appointed the leader of each group to oversee the distribution of books and activity cards. Students read easy and varied material before collaborating in answering the questions on the activity cards. Maika and Freier’s (2003) analysis of students’ performance on a cloze test of reading, responses to questionnaires and classroom observations led them to conclude that students’ enthusiasm for reading increased along with their reading performance. During the study, teachers departed from the original activity cards in favour of a wider range of activities, such as drawing, summarising, dramatising and vocabulary exercises. The researchers saw a direct relationship between the kind of activities used and students’ enthusiasm for the group reading time.

What is evident in both of these case studies is that reading books was at the core of efforts to promote a culture of reading. Yet what is available to students in their school libraries is ‘dreary’ (Molelo & Cowieson 2003:124). Arua et al. (2005) also found a shortage of new or recent book titles in the six schools they studied. The teachers and administrators they interviewed insisted that their schools need well-stocked and up-to-date materials and equipment including computers, CD-ROMs and DVDs. Reading materials may also be available in students’ homes. In 1987 and 1988 Losike conducted interviews in Gaborone North and Moshupa village with the parents of 52 students. She wanted to learn about the relationship between the use of reading materials in the home and students’ English reading comprehension. Losike (1987) was pleasantly surprised to find that all the homes had books and three-quarters of the parents reported reading books and other materials for self-education and personal development. To estimate students’ reading comprehension, Losike administered the cloze reading test that Davis (1987) used in her needs assessment of English language proficiency. Students read a 132-word passage with 25 blanks where their task was to write in the missing words. Losike (1987) found that students whose parents reported helping them at home scored higher on the cloze test of reading. It is important to note that these findings were consistent across the various socio-economic statuses of the participants.

Ketsitlile (2009) explains that San students’ indigenous literacy practices and ways of reading the world through animals, spirits and rock art are not included in formal education. Clearly, the need to support San students along with all students attending government schools depends on markedly improving the development of language and literacy instruction. One such effort has been pursued by Jankie (2004a, 2004b). She offers a course for teachers at the University of Botswana on multicultural literacy education. Jankie’s (2004a:1) goal is to prepare in-service and pre-service teachers to teach students from diverse backgrounds. She wants teachers to guide their students to ‘examine and make connections among issues of identity, knowledge construction, equity, power, representation and education’. Jankie’s goals are in keeping with the policy outlined by the Ministry of Education that in secondary schools students should develop an appreciation for their own culture as well as for other cultures that may be similar or different from their own. Jankie (2004a:14) used action research to investigate the views of four junior secondary school teachers and found they were unanimous that multicultural literature could be used to lead students to ‘interrogate cultural practices and sensitize students to issues of diversity’. The teachers varied on whether they would engage students in readings and discussions on issues such as gender, sexuality, and religion. What Jankie’s course and research did not do is use literature to engage students in thinking about social justice amongst the various language and ethnic groups in Botswana. This may be why Jankie concluded that a semester course on multicultural education was not sufficient to engage teachers in self-interrogation of their own beliefs about diversity.

In Botswana, there is an urgent need to teach reading in ways that meet the needs of all students, especially those who come from Khoesan-speaking backgrounds. The status quo with regard to reading instruction in secondary schools is a detriment to students, although the government and policymakers have introduced policies that support more student involvement and an emphasis on authentic communication. The mismatch between policy and practice is a cause for concern. More interaction amongst the reader, the text and the environment is needed.

The studies reviewed also point to the fact that teachers in Botswana secondary schools lack preparation for teaching reading. This is not surprising as they teach the way they have been taught when they were in secondary school. This is why teachers of subjects other than English do not show secondary students how to learn from reading texts in mathematics, science and the humanities. Teachers fail to see the connection that exists between their content subjects and reading. This lack of skills and strategies in the teaching of reading results in teachers compartmentalising reading and not connecting it to writing and diverse literacies. This disadvantages all students, especially those for whom English is a third language and for whom literacy is not only limited to reading and writing, but extends to telling stories, poems and riddles. There is an urgent need to encourage extensive reading of both students and staff in schools.

Secondly, we recommend that local writing and publishing be expanded. We support efforts such as the Bessie Head Heritage Trust (n.d.) founded in 2007 because it sponsors an annual writing competition for residents of Botswana. Efforts such as these encourage the development of a literary culture because the winning novels, short stories poetry and children’s stories are published locally. The expansion of the current culture of reading depends on there being a wider variety of materials that people want to read and in a variety of formats.

Thirdly, we recommend that a concerted effort be made by all those involved in education to find ways for a culture of reading and writing to complement the oral literacy tradition. The promotion of storytelling and other forms of oral literacy should remain strong and vibrant whilst improving students’ reading and writing abilities. Intergenerational and family literacy needs to be a part of this effort to maintain the past whilst embracing the new literacies, including those that are digital. The ubiquity of mobile phones is being used in other African contexts to support literacy development, for example the mobile phones for literacy project in South Africa has published novels for youth in English and isiXhosa which they access from their mobile phones. Teachers will need a lot of support in learning how to use mobile phones and other technologies to meet government curriculum objectives. There is a need to promote a culture of reading for pleasure; teachers should be given instruction on how to encourage recreational reading and students (from early age) should be taught to read not only for academic purposes, but also for pleasure to increase their literacy skills and become lifelong readers.

Fourthly, there is a need to provide more relevant and better reading (in schools, libraries and homes), especially high-interest, low-level books for students who are speak English as a second or third language.

Fifthly, the Colleges of Education and the University of Botswana should be at the forefront in the teaching of reading to pre-service and in-service teachers. This will help in equipping teachers with the important skills that they will need to impart reading skills and strategies to students in schools. Students will in turn be properly guided in both their academic and extensive reading. We agree with Ketsitlile and Galegane (2010) that students’ leisure reading influences their academic reading.

Sixthly, the Ministry of Education and concerned stakeholders need to encourage a marriage of policy and practice in the teaching of reading in Botswana. In addition, teachers need to be sensitised to the fact that reading cannot be isolated from writing (Adeyemi 2010). We suggest that this could be done through workshops, seminars and refresher courses during the school holidays so that many teachers can attend.

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